Part 2: Islamic Contribution in Science

Science & Mathematics in Medieval Islamic Cultures

Introduction: There were astonishing (surprising) achievements by Muslim scholars (people who study, students) and scientists during the period from approximately 750 to 1050 A.D. This period is called a "Golden Age" of the Islamic World. Great advances were made in the Abbasid Islamic Empire (with its capital in Baghdad) even up to 1258 when the Mongols invaded the empire and destroyed its capital. Great achievements also continued in Muslim Spain, in Cairo, Egypt at later time periods, but the glorious "Golden Age" was the best period for science and mathematics. These achievements greatly influenced learning in Europe, as well. Without the Muslim achievements at this time, much of the learning from ancient Greece, Rome, and Egypt would have been lost forever.
I. Why was there a Golden Age?
What were the factors (all the reasons) that brought about a "Golden Age"? Why did it end? [The following is a simplification and reworking of an article from "Islamic History in Arabia and the Middle East: The Legacy" and other sources. Also see The Golden Age of Islam.]
 A. Encouragement of Scholarship (studying) within Islam
The Muslims were encouraged by the Prophet Muhammad himself to "seek learning even as far as China". In the area of medicine, the Prophet Muhammad also encouraged a scientific approach. He said, "For every disease, Allah has given a cure," and scientists were encouraged to find those cures. This attitude toward learning and research was a powerful reason that science developed so much under Islam. Moreover, Islam encouraged learning in order to read the Qur'an, which begins: "Recite!" (which is also translated: "Read!").

Here are some more Hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) which encouraged learning: "He who pursues the road of knowledge Allah will direct to the road of Paradise... The brightness of a learned man compared to that of a mere worshiper is like that of a the full moon compared to all the stars.... Obtain knowledge; its possessor can distinguish right from wrong; it shows the way to Heaven; it befriends us in the desert and in solitude, and when we are friendless; it is our guide to happiness; it gives us strength in misery; it is an ornament to friends, protection against enemies.... The scholar's ink is holier than the martyr's blood.... Seeking knowledge is required of every Muslim.... From Science in Medieval Islam by H. Turner, University of Texas Press, 1995. Page 17

 B. Geographic Unity:
During this period the territory of the Muslim Empire included present-day Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, North Africa, Spain, parts of Turkey and Turkey, and more! People came from all those lands to Baghdad. This brought about a sharing of ideas from different parts of the world.

The Abbasid Caliphate about 950 A.D.
 C. Development of Paper
A third important reason for the Golden Age was the establishment of a paper mill (factory) in Baghdad. Paper was first invented in China and then the Muslims learned how it was made. (Actually Chinese papermakers were taken prisoner and forced to teach their captors how to make paper!) Soon paper replaced parchment (the skin of animals) and papyrus (a plant made into a kind of "paper" in ancient Egypt). The development of paper made it possible for a great many people to get books and learn from them. This was an important advance which affected education and scholarship.
Courtesy, Museum of Paper Making. Also see a map of the History of Paper which shows the slow spread of papermaking through the Middle East, across North Africa, and into Europe.
 D. A Unified Language
Another important reason for the "Golden Age" was the development of Arabic into the language of international scholarship. This was one of the most significant events in the history of ideas. Scholars could communicate with one another, and ideas were translated from Greek, Latin, ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and languages from other parts of the world. In the ninth century the Caliph al-Mamun encouraged the translation of Greek and Byzantine knowledge. With the approval of the Byzantine emperor, the caliph sent scholars to select and bring back Greek scientific manuscripts (handwritten works) for translation into Arabic. This knowledge could be read and discussed by scholars from all over the Islamic Empire.

Arabic painting of Socrates, a Greek philosopher
E. "The House of Wisdom - Bayt al-Hikmah"
The House of Wisdom was a place where scholar-translators tried to translate into Arabic the important philosophical and scientific works of the ancient world, especially from Greece and Egypt. They also tried to show how Islam could include exloring new ideas and experiments (rationalism). The House of Wisdom was set up by Caliph al-Mamun in 1004 A.D. in Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Empire. It was the greatest "think tank" the medieval world had ever seen! Without the translations and research that went on here, much of the Greek, Latin, and Egyptian knowledge would have been lost to the world.

The historian al-Maqrizi described the opening of the House of Wisdom in 1004: " In 1004 A.D. 'The House of Wisdom' was opened. The students took up their residence. The books were brought from [many other] libraries ... and the public was admitted. Whosoever wanted was at liberty to copy any book he wished to copy, or whoever required to read a certain book found in the library could do so. Scholars studied the Qur'an, astronomy, grammar, lexicography and medicine. The building was, moreover, adorned by carpets, and all doors and corridors had curtains, and managers, servants, porters and other menials were appointed to maintain the establishment. Out of the library of Caliph al-Hakim those books were brought which he had gathered-- books in all sciences and literatures and of exquisite calligraphy such as no king had ever been able to bring together. Al-Hakim permitted admittance to everyone, without distinction of rank, who wished to read or consult any of the books. (Cited by Stone in Sardar & Davies: The Legacy of Islam: A Glimpse from a Glorious Past )

F. The Importance of Books to the Muslims
Adapted from: Sardar & Davies: The Legacy of Islam: A Glimpse from a Glorious Past
"Within two hundred years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the book industry was to be found in almost every corner of the Muslim world. Indeed, the whole of Muslim civilization revolved around the book. Libraries (royal, public, specialized, and private) had become common. Bookshops were found almost everywhere and book authors, translators, copiers, illuminators, librarians, sellers, and collectors from all classes and sections of society, of all nationalities and ethnic backgrounds, competed with each other in the making and selling of books.
"There were many libraries from which to borrow books in the Muslim civilization. Historians list thirty-six libraries in Baghdad alone around the middle of the thirteenth century, and that does not include the House of Wisdom!
"There were similar libraries in Cairo (Egypt), Aleppo (Syria) and the major or cities of Iran, Central Asia and Mesopotamia. In addition to the central government libraries, there was a huge network of public libraries in most big cities, and prestigious private collections which attracted scholars from all parts of the Muslim world.
"Of course, one could always buy books. A manuscript ... was about the size of the modern book, containing good quality paper with writing on both sides, and bound in leather covers. An average bookshop contained several hundred titles, but larger bookshops had many more ... The list of books sold in one bookstore was more than sixty thousand titles in many subjects: language and calligraphy, Christian and Jewish scriptures, the Qur'an and commentaries on the Qur'an, language books, histories, government works, court accounts, pre-Islamic and Islamic poetry, works by various schools of Muslim thought, biographies of numerous men of learning, Greek and Islamic philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, Greek and Islamic medicine, literature, popular fiction, travel (to India, China, Indochina), magic, other subjects and fables!"

From another historian/traveler Al-Wazan (also known as Leo Africanus) we learn that in the city of Timbuktu, Mali in West Africa, books were very precious. At the height of the city's golden age in the mid-16th century, Timbuktu boasted not only the impressive public libraries, but also private ones which included many of the rarest books ever written in Arabic. The libraries of Timbuktu grew through a regular process of hand-copying manuscripts. Al-Wazan commented that "hither are brought divers manuscripts or written books, which are sold for more money than any other merchandise." [See The Islamic Legacy of Timbuktu, Erols site.]
Part II: Advances Made by Muslims in Science

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A. Chemistry and Alchemy

Jabir Ibn Haiyan, known in Europe by the name Geber, is generally known as the Father of Chemistry. He was one of the leading scientists in Kufa (in present day Iraq) around 776 C.E. In his early days, he was supported by the advisor to the Abbasid Caliph. Jabir died in Kufa in 803 C.E.
Jabir's (Geber's) major contribution was in the field of Chemistry. He is famous for writing twenty-two books on chemistry and alchemy. He introduced experimental investigation into alchemy which led to modern Chemistry. Jabir emphasized experimentation and development of methods to show the same result when an experiment was repeated. He developed basic chemical methods and the study of various chemical reactions and thus helped develop chemistry as a science and away from the legends and "magic" of alchemy.
[Note: Alchemy was an early "science" - or was it magic? Alchemists tried to change metals like lead into gold, and to find a magic "elixir" or medical potion that would keep people from ever dying. While it is not really a science, some alchemists helped us understand the beginnings of chemistry.]
To learn more about him, read Dr. Zahoor's biography.

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B. Astronomy

1. Why was Astronomy important to Muslims?
Astronomy was important to Muslims because of their religion! They needed to know the beginning of the month of Ramadan, the hours of prayer, and the direction of Mecca. By observing the position of the sun and moon, Muslims could know the direction of Mecca. As Islam expanded to an empire over 6,000 miles wide, astronomers could help them know these things.
Muslims follow the Lunar, or "moon" Calendar as required by the Qur'an. Months change according to the phases (changes in time) and position [place, location in the sky] of the moon. Each month begins with the first sighting of the crescent moon. This is especially important in the Muslim holy month of Ramadan when fasting is during the day for one month.
Astronomy also led to developments in trigonometry, a field of mathematics important to the mapping of the earth and to the computation of planetary orbits.
GIF animation by Ed Stephan, wwu.edu showing the phases of the moon.

This image is from Michael Olmert, Smithsonian Book of Books, 1992. The original source of the eclipse diagram is the Parliament Library in Teheran.
2. Famous Astronomers:
a. Al-Farghani
Al-Farghani was one of the most distinguished astronomers in the the House of Wisdom. He wrote "Elements of Astronomy" , a book on celestial (heavenly) motion and science of the stars. It was translated into Latin in the 12th century and exerted great influence upon European astronomy. It supported the widely held view that the earth was the center of a system around which went the planets and the sun (first described by Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer who lived in Alexandria, Egypt).
b. al-Sufi
'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was a Persian astronomer who lived during the 10th century. In 964, he described the Andromeda galaxy, our closest neighbor, and called it "little cloud". This was the first record of a star system outside our own galaxy. Al-Sufi's book on stars was translated into many languages and had a big influence on European astronomy.
c. Al-Zarqali (known as Arzachel in Europe)
In Muslim Spain, there were many famous astronomers. Al-Zarqali (known as Arzachel in Europe) lived from about 1029 to 1080. He was the most famous astronomer of his age. He made a kind of astrolabe that measured the motion of the stars. His work was translated into Latin and other languages and his books were studied later in Europe.
d. Al-Bitruji (known as Alpetragius in Europe)
Al-Bitruji developed a new theory of stellar (star) movement. He was born in Morocco. He later migrated (moved) to Spain and lived in Seville. He died at the beginning of the thirteenth century around 1204 C.E.

Above is a Turkish miniature painting showing astronomers and their tools (from Topkapi Palace Museum: "Taqi al-Din b. Maruf and his colleagues at the Istanbul observatory" from Lokman, Shahanshahnama, or "Book of the King of Kings"), Istanbul, 1581-1582). Click on the picture above to see two large images of the original.
 3. Observatories (places to look at the night sky and study the stars) were first established in the Islamic world in major cities such as Baghdad, Hamadan, Toledo, Maragha, Samarkand, and Istanbul, and new instruments were developed. The Muslim invention of the astrolabe, for example, was one of the most important in astronomy until the invention of the telescope in the 17th century. Muslims were also the first astronomers to challenge the long-accepted theories of Ptolemy and Aristotle regarding eclipses, planetary orbits, and the position of the stars.
4. Tools of Astronomy: Muslims further developed the earliest astrolabe, a great astronomical tool. (They improved upon the Greek invention.) It was used to determine one's latitude (or place on the earth) by looking at the position of the stars and sun. It was especially important to travelers.

Learn more about the Astrolabe: The astrolabe (an instrument used for measuring the positions on the earth). For a student project "Building an Astrolabe" and one from Singapore's Virtual Science Center - "Building an Astrolabe". Photo: Muslim scientists developed the astrolabe, an instrument used long before the invention of the sextant to observe the position of celestial (heavenly) bodies. Read an excellent article on Islamic Astronomy which tells how Muslim scientists translated Greek and Indian works, and improved upon them. This site also has a good description of the astrolabe and how it was used as a measuring device and as a "calculator".

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C. Geography

 This map below is by Al-Idrisi. It is shown both as he drew it (north to the bottom) and "upside down" (north to the top, as we are more used to seeing maps). Can you make out the land and sea features - that's the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea in the middle.

Muslims traveled widely during the Middle Ages. They traveled on the hajj to Mecca, and on vast caravans for trade across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.

l. Al-Idrisi (also known as Dreses) 1099-1166 C.E. [Geographer]
Al-Idrisi is best known in the West as a geographer, who made a globe or sphere of silver weighing 400 kilograms for the Christian King Roger II of Sicily. Some scholars regard him as the greatest geographer and cartographer (mapmaker) of the Middle Ages. He put together a geographical encyclopedia with many maps.
See another short biography of Al-Idrisi . A copy of the map of Al-Idrisi is displayed in the Sharjah Islamic Museum in the United Arab Emirates.

2. Leo Africanus (Hasan a-Wazan) was a traveler and map-maker who lived from 1485-1554. He was captured by Christian pirates and presented to the Pope as a slave. He later was commissioned to write about and make maps of his travels in West Africa. His description of Timbuktu (now in the country of Mali) tells of the city famous for trade of African products and for scholarship with a thriving trade in books. (From "Leo Africanus: Description of Timbuktu" Washington State University.) Read another biography of "Leo Africanus: Moorish Man of Learning."

For more information on geography and travelers, see our own webpage: Travelers and Map-Makers.

3. Al-Biruni (973-1048 CE)

Al-Biruni image (from University of St. Andrews, Scotland site)

Al-Biruni made original and important contributions to science. He discovered seven different ways of finding the direction of the north and south, and discovered mathematical techniques to determine exactly the beginnings of the season. He also wrote about the sun and its movements and the eclipse. In addition, he invented a few astronomical instruments. Many centuries before the rest of the world, Al-Biruni discussed that the earth rotated on its axis and made accurate calculations of latitude and longitude.
Al-Biruni was the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena. He stated that the speed of light is immense as compared with the speed of sound. He described the Milky Way as a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars.
When the Sultan sent him three camel-loads of silver coins in appreciation of his encyclopedic work, Al-Biruni politely returned the royal gift saying, "I serve knowledge for the sake of knowledge and not for money."
Al-Biruni is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all times.  

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More Images

• Portraits of Twelve Muslim Scientists in Various Fields (ink drawings by an Egyptian) http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam09.html; a portrait of Al-Kharism (father of algebra) is found at http://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/history/arab/arab.html
• Two portraits of al-Kwarizmi are found at http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Al'Khwarizmi.html

 
D. Optics - Study of Light and Vision
1. Egyptians were already making glass in 3500 BCE, although it was not perfectly transparent. A number of Greek and Roman references from about 200 BCE cite the usefulness of curved glass lenses in starting fires.
From Dr. Zahoor's site.
The Islamic Empire, through its massive work of translating Greek and Roman texts into Arabic, learned about the manufacture of glass lenses. Islamic scientist Ibn Sahl (984) developed the first accurate theory of refraction of light. He gave Islamic science the understanding needed to develop all the optical tools and theories later developed in 17th century Europe.
2. Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham (965 - 1040 C.E.) was known in Europe as Alhazen. He studied the human eye and describe how we see. His Book of Optics recognized that sight is visual images entering the eye, made perceptible by adequate light.
Read more about Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham who is considered the father of modern optics.  
E. Advances in Medicine: Another important area of translation was medicine. One of its most famous scholars was Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Joanitius) who eventually translated the entire set of Greek medical books into Arabic, including the Hippocratic Oath. Later as a director of the House of Wisdom, he also wrote at least twenty-nine original works of his own on medicine and a collection of ten essays on ophthalmology (the study of the eye) which covered the anatomy and physiology of the eye and the treatment of various diseases which affect vision. His book was the first known medical work to include anatomical drawings (pictures showing parts of the body), the book was translated into Latin and for centuries was used in both European and Middle Eastern universities.